Origins of American History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Origins of American History - Essay Example It is only knowledge from these primary sources that can possibly give us reliable evidence on the effects of slavery on the Atlantic civilization. The Flourishing of the Slave Trade The first effect of the slave trade on the Atlantic world was the expansion of the trade itself. Much of the information concerning this was exposed through the publication of the journals of John Barbot, a French Royal African Company agent who made voyages from the West Coast of Africa back to the Atlantic world, two of these documented in 1678 and 1682. Based on the Slave Trade documents by John Barbot, which were published in 1732, it was rather easy to obtain slaves from Africa because â€Å"in times of dearth and famine, abundance of those people will sell themselves, for a maintenance, and to prevent starving†. Moreover, according to John Barbot, the main consequence of the great supply of slaves from Africa going to the Atlantic civilization is the lesser demand for them and more important ly, the cruelty and inhumane treatment that is afforded these slaves. According to John Barbot, the masters of these slaves â€Å"subsist them poorly and beat them inhumanly†. ... Also, when the slaves die, the masters â€Å"never bury them but case out the bodies into some by place, to be devoured by birds or beasts of prey†. This is rather one of the cruelest acts done by the masters on the slaves, which is not to afford dignity to the slaves even in death. Lastly, these slaves have been subjected to torture as Barbot himself admits ad confesses: â€Å"And tho’ I must say I am naturally compassionate, yet have I been necessitated sometimes to cause the teeth of those wretches to be broken, because they would not open their mouths†. From these accounts of John Barbot, one can clearly see the maltreatment of the slaves in the Atlantic civilization, whether in Europe or in America. This dominated the market during those times. Fusion of African and Atlantic Cultures The account of Olaudah Equiano, who was born in Benin in the late 1700s and kidnapped from there by the European slave traders, somehow opposed the idea of Barbot that it was ra ther easy to obtain slaves because they would sell themselves to prevent starving. On the other hand, it is possible that not all places would be the same all the time. Nevertheless, according to Equiano, when he arrived in England, he thought â€Å"the languages of different nations did not totally differ, nor were they so copious as those of the Europeans, particularly the English [and] they were therefore easily learned; and while I was journeying thus through Africa [probably on board the slave ship], I acquired two or three different tongues†. This is therefore a sign that the cultures of Africa have Formation of Anti-Slavery Organizations As early as 1790, there have been calls for anti-slavery in the Atlantic world, like the Society of the Friends of Blacks, who called for the abolition of

Workplace Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Workplace Issues - Essay Example If the employee is not working in an area that "involves public safety or sensitive government policies", the courts may disallow drug testing (Bergman and Berman-Barrett, 2008, p.70). Limiting drug testing is based on the provisions of probable cause, and the search and seizure protections in the constitution. The federal government justifies drug testing using the legal theory that the potential for harm must outweigh the damage inflicted by the loss of the subject of constitutional rights. In any event, employees in private employment should have the same protections as a government employee. Without probable cause, IE obvious intoxication, the employee should not have to submit to an invasive search of his blood or breath.  Ã‚   Employees are protected from discrimination in their compensation based primarily on the Equal Pay Act of 1963 (Equal pay and compensation discrimination, 2009). The 1963 act was meant to target gender discrimination, but subsequent acts have focused on minority status, age, and disabilities (Equal pay and compensation discrimination, 2009). The 1963 Act prohibits paying different rates of pay based on gender when the employees are equal in skill, effort, and responsibility (Equal pay act of 1963, 2009). Women have argued for gender equality, and the 1963 Act was keeping with our country's tradition of fairness and reflected a fundamental shift away from the traditional roles of men and women (Persily, Citrin, and Egan, 2008, p.158). However, the equality of pay also depresses overall wages and benefits business the most. Artificially higher pay for women attracts more women to the labor pool, and this surplus of labor drives down wages (Sowell, 2004, p.163). The fact that we have co mplied with the principles of gender equality does not fairly compensate for the economic loss incurred in the labor market, and gender should not be considered as a criterion for pay equality.   

Components of Reading Essay Example for Free

Components of Reading Essay

Hochschilds Emotional Labour Theory

Hochschilds Emotional Labour Theory Emotional labour was first put forward by sociologist Arlie Hochschild in 1983 in her classic book, The Managed Heart. Hochschilds (1983) thesis mostly focuses on the job of flight attendants and bill collectors where she described the work involved in being nasty or nice and have also been expressed as toe and heel of the growing service sector (Cited in Steinberg Figart, 1999: 9) , also implying call centre, which has been targeted for analysis purpose in this study. Repercussions of rapid growing call centres globally have highlighted the importance of the service industry in recent years, whereby organisations accentuate on service quality where the impact is mostly upon selling a service with a smile. This new work organisation focuses on creating a pleasant service interaction for the clients or customers through good and pleasant customer service representative (CSR). As such, service employees are expected to regulate the emotional expression and display certain pre-establis hed and contextually appropriate emotions as per the organisations norms and culture while interacting with customers due to the nature and characteristics of the job as well as the work environment  [1]  . According to Steinberg Figart (1999), emotional labour emphasis is laid on the relational rather than task-based aspect of work, principally found in service economies. It is labour-intensive, it is skilled, effort-intensive, and productive labour. It creates value, affects productivity, and generates profit Steinberg Figart (1999) For such type of emotional labour, wage is their reward; that is, they get paid for their emotional work demands specifically for performing Emotional Labour (Grandey Brauburger, 2002; Zapf, 2002). Most of interactions nowadays include emotional labour (Gibson, 1997; Pugliesi Shook, 1997). For long emotions have been of interest to psychologists and sociologists (Hochschild, 1983; Thoits, 1990), but recently they have been of particular interest to organisational researchers (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993, 1995; Fineman, 1993; Morris Feldman, 1996, 1997). Arlie Hochschild (1983:7) defined emotional labour as the management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display (Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). She also points to the need for an employee to induce or suppress feeling in order to sustain the outward countenance that produces the proper state of mind in others (1983 Cited in Murphy McClure, 2007:7). Emotional labour is demarcated as having different characteristics that may be analysed along different dimensions. Firstly, it requires a personal contact external or within organisations entailing either face-to-face or voice-to-voice client contact (Zapf, 2002; Steinberg Figart, 1999). Emotional labour also requires a worker to produce an emotional state in another person while at the same time managing ones own emotions (Steinberg Figart, 1999:13  [2]  ). Initially, Hochschild (1983) pointed to facial and bodily displays that were observable but further, researchers broaden the view including words , voice tone and other behaviours shaped by efforts undertaken by the person (Wharton Erickson, 1993). Emotional expression is required to follow certain rules, that is, display rules of the organisation (Grandey Brauburger, 2002; Humphrey, 2000; Zapf, 2002). This directs to the alignment of emotional labour with call centre environment due to their respective characteristics such as voice-to-voice or face-to-face, emotions expressed and following display rules during interactions for customer satisfaction. Ashforth Humphreys (1993, 1995) contribution to emotional labour have pushed forward Hochschilds thesis by incorporating the concept of social identity into their study of emotions in the workplace. They define emotional labour as the act of displaying the appropriate emotion (1993:90). Their definition differs from Hochschilds definition as they focus on behaviour rather than on the presumed emotions underlying behaviour (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:90) because they see it as a possibility to conform to display rules without the employee having to manage feelings (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:90). Their focus is on what the employee should feel at work instead of focusing on feeling rules (Hochschild, 1983), which leads us to display rules which are generally a function of societal norms, occupational norms, and organisational norms  [3]  (Rafaeli Sutton, 1989) (Figure 1). Figure 1: Rafaeli Suttons Factors that influence Emotions Expressed by Role Occupants. Source: Rafaeli, A., Sutton, R. I., The expression of emotion in organisational life, Research in Organisational Behaviour, Vol. 11, p.5. Copyright (1989) Surface Acting and Deep Acting: Hochschild (1979, 1983) argued that emotional labour is performed in one of two ways. First, the service provider may act in accordance with display rules through Surface Acting, which involves Simulating emotions that are not actually felt, which is accomplished by careful presentation of verbal and non verbal cues, such as facial expression, gestures and voice tone. Ashforth Humphrey (1993:92) Hereby, the service agents simulate emotions that are not felt by the latter. However, surface acting does not mean that the agent do not experiences any emotion but instead a display emotion that is not felt (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). This causes a discrepancy between felt and displayed emotion as we will discuss in this study. There are also cases where the agent is or is not particularly concerned about the welfare of the customer which is referred to as faking in good faith and faking in bad faith by Rafaeli Sutton (1987: 32 Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Surface acting can also be part of acting typically discussed as Impression Management (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993) and this converges with Goffmans dramaturgical analysis of daily encounters (Goffman, 1959, 1969). The second means of complying with display rules is through Deep Acting, which involves a service agent attempting to actually experience or feel the emotions that one wishes to display (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:93). Deep acting can also be described as actors psyche themselves for a role in the same way, the service provider psyches himself or herself for a desired emotion (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:93). Surface acting focuses on ones outward behaviour, deep acting focuses on ones inner feelings (Hochschild, 1983). The concept of surface and deep acting refer to The effort or act of trying to display the appropriate emotion, not the outcomes that is, the quality of the effort and the effects this effort has on target audience Hochschild (1979)  [4]   Further, the efforts may become effortless, for instance, in call centre works, the pre-described scripts and repetitive nature of the work makes deep and surface acting such that emotional labour becomes relatively effortless (Ashforth Fried, 1988 Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). In the same vein, Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) include the spontaneous and genuine emotions in his conceptualisation of emotional labour, which explains the instances where a service agent spontaneously and genuinely experiences and expresses the expected emotion Ashforth and Humphrey (1993:94). The service provider may naturally feel what he or she was expected to express without having to fake the emotion as per Hochschild (1983) thesis. Ashforth and Humphreys perception was no compliance but instead, a natural expression of feelings, for instance, a nurse who feels sympathy at the sight of an injured child has no need to act' (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:94). Grandey (2000) provides another conceptualisation of emotional labour  [5]  in an attempt to refine the construct of emotional labour and the display rules involved. She defines emotional labour as: the process of regulating both feelings and expression for organisational goals (2000: 97). Grandey (2000) argued that previous conceptualisation of emotional labour does not include the emotion management process that employees undertake to conform to organisational display rules. She also developed a model to illustrate her conceptualisation of emotional labour which is based on the emotion regulation lab studies and emotional labour field studies. The situational cues of her model illustrated below (Figure 2) include the interactions expectations based on frequency, duration, variety, and display rules based upon Morris Feldman Dimensions of Emotional Labour (1997). Figure 2: Grandeys Emotion Regulation Process Source: Grandey, A.A., Emotion Regulation in the Workplace: A new Way to conceptualise Emotional Labour, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 5, No. 1, p.95-110. Dimensions of Emotional Labour: Morris Feldman (1996) also contributed to the conceptualisation of emotional labour. They define emotional labour as the effort, planning, and control needed to express organisationally desired emotion during interpersonal transactions (Morris Feldman, 1996: 987). Their perception of emotional labour differs from Hochschilds thesis in the sense that instead of focusing of the management of feeling (Hochschild, 1983), they instead, focus on expressive behaviour, because it is appropriate expressive behaviour that is organisationally desired (Morris Feldman, 1996:988). The level of planning, control, and skill that are required in organisations to display appropriate emotions is what has much significance to them (Morris Feldman, 1996 Cited in Lewig Dollard, 2003). So, Morris Feldman (1996) conceptualise the construct of emotion labour along four dimensions  [6]  (Figure 3) namely, the frequency of appropriate emotional display, the attentiveness to required display rules, va riety of emotions to be displayed, and emotional dissonance. Figure 3: Morris Feldman Four Dimensions of Emotional labour Source: Morris, J.A., Feldman D.C., The Dimensions, Antecedents, and Consequences of Emotional Labour, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 21, No. 4, p.986-1010. Consequences of Emotional Labour: Though emotional labour can create economic benefits for the organisations and the individual such as self-efficacy and task effectiveness, it can also and most probably, has negative consequences on both physical and mental health on the employees. Positive Consequences: Staw et al. (1994) emphasized that employees with positive emotions will be more successful in organisations than employees with negative emotions. Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) proposed that expression of positive emotions is related to increased task effectiveness. They discussed that compliance with display rules facilitates task effectiveness if the emotions displayed by service provider is the emotion is alleged to be sincere to a certain extent (Rafaeli Sutton, 1989; Feldman, 1984; Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Ashforth Humphrey (1993) propose that emotional labour can increase self efficacy of the employees and also increase personal well-being by fulfilling task requirements and task effectiveness  [7]  . In the same vein, they noted that by fulfilling social expectations, emotional labour makes interactions more predictable and avoids embarrassing interpersonal problems that might otherwise disrupt interactions (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:94). Rafaeli Sutton (1987) also found that positive emotions of service employee brings about immediate sale, or cause revisit of customers and can be beneficial to the organisation t hrough word of mouth. Ashforth Humphrey (1993) also argued that emotional labour may facilitate self-expression. This is due to the certain degree of autonomy in the enactment of display rules. They disputed that at least some of the authentic self were projected by the service agents into the enactment, for example, Jackall (1978) described how bank tellers modified organisationally directed display rules to suit their own interpersonal styles (Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Thus, this may facilitate self-expression. The expressions of positive emotions by service employees also influence outcomes that are prominent to the role occupant like financial wellbeing, mental and physical well being (Rafaeli Sutton, 1987). Staw et al. (1994) also found that employees expressing positive emotions are often more appreciated and receive favourable evaluations and better pay than those with negative expressions. Cote and Morgan (2002) also supported that positive emotions can increase job satisfaction as ser vice employees displaying such emotions are judged by others as sociable, pleasant, and likeable (Staw et al, 1994). And this supports organisations as service employees are in better positions to gain control over demanding customers (Mishra, 2006). Negative Consequences: Emotional labour is a double-edge sword (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Most studies undertaken reflected the negative aspects of emotional labour which is more inflicting on individual mental and physical well-being, and eventually affects organisational needs. Emotional Dissonance, Burnout, and Emotional exhaustion: Emotional labour can become dysfunctional for the worker when dissonance between felt emotions and displayed emotions is experienced (Lewig Dollard, 2003:268). This discrepancy between felt and display emotion is termed as emotional dissonance (Lewig Dollard, 2003). Hochschilds (1983) interest in emotional labour derived from what she argues as pernicious effects of both surface acting and deep acting on the labourer (Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:96). Displaying emotions that are not felt, creates a sense of strain, resulting in what Hochschild (1983) termed as emotive dissonance or cognitive dissonance. Hochschild (1983:90) defined emotional dissonance as maintaining a difference between feeling and feigning. This discrepancy is common because even though display rules regulate expressive behaviour, they cannot regulate expressive experience (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:97). According to Ashforth Humphrey (1993:96), emotional dissonance may cause the individual to feel false an d hypocritical  [8]  . In due course, this dissonance could lead to personal and work-related maladjustment such as low self-esteem, depression, cynicism, and alienation from work (Lewig Dollard, 2003)  [9]  . Correspondingly, Ashforth Humphrey argued that deep acting may impair ones sense of authentic self (1993, p.97) and ones well-being, leading to self-alienation. They disputed that as a person loses touch of its authentic self, this may damage ones ability to express genuine expression (Ashforth, 1989). Finally, according to Ashforth and Frieds Study (1988) of mindlessness, with each interaction, deep acting becomes difficult for the service provider  [10]  . Many studies have been undertaken upon the link between emotional dissonance, emotional exhaustion, and burnout and results have been very prominent (Pierce, 1996; Pugliesi, 1999; Pugliesi Shook, 1997). Morris and Feldmans study also made an impact on this relationship (Figure 4), explaining the antecedents and consequences of emotional labour. Figure 4 shows the link that Morris and Feldman (1996) illustrated, taking emotional dissonance as the fourth dimension of the emotional labour construct which leads to emotional exhaustion and job dissatisfaction. Figure 4: Morris Feldman Antecedents and Consequences of Emotional labour Source: Morris, J.A., Feldman D.C., The Dimensions, Antecedents, and Consequences of Emotional Labour, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 21, No. 4, p.986-1010. Emotional exhaustion is a specific stress-related reaction, and is a key component of burnout (Maslach, 1982 Cited in Morris Feldman, 1996). Emotional exhaustion refers to a state of depleted energy caused by excessive emotional demands (Saxton, Phillips, Blakeney, 1991, Cited in Morris Feldman, 1996, p.1002) made on service providers interacting with customers or clients. It has also been associated with withdrawal behaviour and decreases in productivity (Cordes Dougherty, 1993; Jackson, Schwab Schuler, 1986). Lewig and Dollard (2003) found that emotional dissonance intensifies the level of emotional exhaustion at high levels of psychological demands, indicating that jobs having more emotional demands result in more emotional dissonance, hence more emotional exhaustion  [11]  . Maslachs (1982) work also suggests that greater planning for a wide variety of emotional displays is emotionally exhausting. Emotional exhaustion is a component of burnout, which is a stress found typically in service industries (Brotheridge Grandey, 2002; Grandey, 2000; Maslach, 1982). Hochschild (1983) indicated that burnout was a likely outcome for emotional labourers who identified too completely with their jobs (also see Maslach, 1982; Maslach Jackson, 1981). Initially, there is no standard definition of burnout, but most researchers conceptualisation of burnout refers to burnout as a syndrome consisting of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced personal accomplishment that results from interactions with people in some capacity (Maslach Schaufeli, 1993). The research supports that emotional labour is related to burnout and to emotional exhaustion specifically (Abraham, 1998, 1999c; Brotheridge Lee, 2002; Zapf et al., 2001). Similarly, Kruml Geddes (2000) examined the relationship between emotional dissonance and burnout and results proved that those faking their emotions risk becomin g emotionally exhausted. Job Satisfaction, Autonomy, and Performance: Previous theoretical work on emotional labour suggests that a negative relationship between emotional labour and job satisfaction. Hochschild (1983) argued that those employees suffering from burnout is usually a result of low autonomy and high job involvement, ultimately leading to low job satisfaction. According to Parkinson (1991), employees masking their felt emotions, lead to job dissatisfaction. This result from the consequences of emotional dissonance caused from the discrepancy between felt and displayed emotions which lead to exhaustion and burnout, eventually, affects job performance and job satisfaction  [12]  . Gendered Aspect of Emotional Labour: Work organisations and jobs are gendered (Acker, 1990) and this involves jobs requiring interactive work and emotional labour (Cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001). Traditionally, a differential form of emotional labour has been associated with jobs performed mostly by women. Nevertheless, Women do not experience more burnout or inauthenticity than men because of the type of jobs they perform, but rather because managing feelings of agitation have a different effect on women than it does on men. Erickson Ritter (2001:147) Thus, conventionally, Hochschild (1983) chose to study Flight Attendants and Bill Collectors as she believed these were jobs requiring high levels of emotional labour, or she wanted to illustrate the extent to which such jobs were emotionally gendered (Cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001) . As per Acker (1990), emotionally gendered jobs should display emotional patterns of emotional experience that should be distinctive for man and woman  [13]  . The gendered dimension of emotional labour can be illustrated through Rafaeli Sutton (1989) three norms, namely, the social norms, the occupational norms, and the organisational norms Social Norm: Historically, emotional expression has been differential in society and organisations, in that women have the tendency to perform more deferential forms of emotional labour than men (Erickson Ritter, 2001). Women are generally thought to be more expressive than men (Brody Hall, 1993). This issue was traditionally due to the social status of man and woman. Women are socialised to express most feelings freely except anger and man are expected to suppress all feelings but to express anger openly (Sharkin, 1993). In organisations, mens anger is often acceptable and it is generally characterised by shouting and yelling, whereas women express their anger differently and usually characterised by tears (Hoover Dempsey, Plas Wallston, 1986). Hochschild (1983: 163) suggested that woman have a weaker status shield against the displaced feeling of others (Cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001). According to Hochschild (1983), the absence of the social shield implies that women are more like to be e xposed to others anger and frustration and will lack the structural resources to fight back those emotional attacks  [14]  (cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001). Occupational Norms: Occupational norms regarding the appropriateness of emotional displays at work are typically learned during the professional socialisation process. The extents to which organisations have explicit display rules and monitor employees expressive behaviour will depend on the level of skill and training required to perform the work. Morris and Feldman (1996: 997) Elaine Hall (1993) and Robin Leidner (1991, 1993) studies also focused on the gendered dimension of emotional labour which reflected on the service of a restaurant  [15]  . They argued that this organisational behaviour structured the interaction of women servers as sexual objects (Cited in Steinberg Figart, 1999:16). Jennifer Pierce (1995) also echoed the gendered occupational dimension of emotional labour with her study of paralegals, where woman paralegals entailed in tremendous emotional labour job content  [16]  . Similarly, OBrien study (1994) of the nursing profession in Great Britain focused on this aspect of emotional labour where many of the skills possessed by nurses derived not from the qualities of being a nurse but from the qualities of being a woman  [17]   (1994:399). The case of call centres that have become a new organisational phenomenon nowadays is greatly emotionally gendered. The call centre industry quickly arrived at the realisation that women sell (Carter Butler, 2008:6). Foreseths (2005) study demonstrates how feelings are commoditized and womans femininity and sexuality are sold alongside the companys product such as airline tickets, hotel reservations amongst others (Cited in Carter Butler, 2008:6). Most often, women are expected to make use of their inherent caring and nurturing nature to persuade customers to purchase the products or service or assist customers in their inquiries and complaints (Brannan, 2005; Fernandez et. al., 2005: 894-895). These situations provide examples of how the issue of gender makes a difference in occupations and how with the use of display rules, the gendered dimension of emotional labour is strengthen (Fineman, 1996). National culture also play an important part on the gendered emotional labour depending on which type of policies organisations employ and where national culture shape organisational culture, hence influencing the emotional labour (Aaltio-Marjosola, 1994; Gheradi, 1994). Organisational Norms: An organisations culture will have the most persistent influence on display rules and associated emotions (Rafaeli Sutton, 1989; Van Maanen Kunda, 1989). Gender is implicated within these social norms, which vary by culture  [18]  (Steinberg Figart, 1999). Organisational culture consists Of symbols, beliefs, and patterns of behaviour learned, produced, and created by the people who devote their energies and labour to the life of an organisation Sprati (1992:342) Consequently, this pattern of behaviour, which of itself is gendered, is reflected in their tacit rejection of emotional feelings at work (Sprati, 1992). Aaltio-Marjosola (1994) noted that gender stereotypes are becoming cultural product of the organisation. Hence, where service providers are interacting in this context, they believe that they are acting in their own, but in fact they are acting as per organisational norms and emotional displays become part of compliance and not emotional attachment, and no commitment. In the context of emotional exchanges, emotional dissonance and its relationship to emotional exhaustion and burnout are important. Research indicates that not only women are required to engage in emotional labour more than man (Morris Feldman, 1997; Rafaeli Sutton, 1989; Wharton Erickson, 1993), but at the same time, it is clear that woman express more positive emotions toward other than man (Stoppard Gunn Gruchy, 1993). Man, on the other hand, is restricted to those emotions that are considered manly to the society. As discussed above through Rafaeli and Sutton three norms that demonstrate the gendered dimension of emotional labour, man and woman are expected different forms of emotional labours, so this lead to more emotional dissonance, more emotional exhaustion, and more burnout. The gendered aspects of emotional labour can also affect job satisfaction and is illustrated through Stenross and Kleinmans study of sheriff (1989) (Steinberg Figart, 1999). The Self and Emotional Labour: What is of utmost importance is how the self of the individual is mostly affected as a result of emotional labour. The relevant questions shifts from Hochschilds  [19]   How is the self eroded or alienated by commodification? to What kinds of selves are constructed through labour processes? What are the social possibilities for the construction of selves and relationship within a given organisation? and How do Workers creatively negotiate, build upon, and negate these parameters? Ashforth and Humphreys social identity theory (1993) described the social possibilities that may construct the self of an emotional labourer and its relationship to organisations levels. They argued that The self concept is comprised of a personal identity that encompasses distinctive characteristics and traits and a social identity encompassing salient group classifications  [20]  . Ashforth Humphrey (1993:98); Ashforth Mael (1989); Tajfel Turner (1985) Ashforth Humphrey (1993) also noted that individuals who define themselves in terms of social groups and idiosyncratic characteristics whose display rules are discrepant with those of the organisational role are more apt to experience emotive dissonance and self-alienation (p.99). The self is constructed and modified upon the social group the individual identifies himself or herself with. The more strongly one identifies with the role, the greater the positive impact that fulfilling those expectations has on ones psychological well-being  [21]   (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993:99). Emotions are the construction of Identity but with deep and surface acting in emotional labour, this creates internal pressures on the individuals and eventually causes a dissonance (Richman, 1988; Sutton, 1991). Workers who construct emotional labour as performing a role do not have a sense of authenticity (Haman, 2005:89). The work of Michel Foucault is inevitable when talking about the self in emotional labour. His work mainly evolves the influences of power and control on the inner sphere of an individual. Foucault described the discourse of organisational and human needs and the case of emotional labour in service sectors has largely been a debatable subject. In performing service work, employees are not only consenting to degrading the self, they work on their own identities in ways that sometimes confirm with organisational norms, but very often do not. Whenever one is dealing with a multiplicity of individuals on whom a task or a particular form of behaviour must be imposed, the panoptic schema may be used Foucault (1977: 205) So, emotional labour is very well concerned with the foucauldian analysis, where display rules are imposed on the individual, the panoptic schema may be used. In late eighteenth century, Jeremy Bentham design a prison  [22]  , which was later adapted by Foucault, and the main idea behind the construct of the prison was to make the individual feel that they were constantly under carceral gaze and they would eventually internalise and disciplined and controlled themselves accordingly (Foucault, 1977: 201). He who is subjected to a field of visibility, and who knows it, assumes responsibility for the constraints of power; he makes them play spontaneously upon himself; he inscribes in himself the power relation in which he simultaneously plays both roles; he becomes principle of his own subjection Foucault (Discipline, 202-203) In early 1990s, the panopticon was perceived to be electronic in the workplace with new technologies advancements that increase ways of surveillance and monitoring through internet, telephones, ATMs. Credit cards, and the increasing number of surveillance cameras in urban spaces (Foucault, 1977). In fact, call centres are the best illustrations, where high emotional discrepancies are occurred as explained above in this study, has been perceived as heavy Foucauldian spin (Thompson, 2003) and the main conce

The Axiological Dimension of Tolerance :: Psychological Social Papers

The Axiological Dimension of Tolerance ABSTRACT: I contend that tolerance is not the expression of a simple attitude, but constitutes a moral value which penetrates all spheres of social life. My argument assumes that globalization is a fundamental tendency of the contemporary world and that the ideal of such a world cannot be enacted without tolerance. After identifying the constituent elements of this value and its conditions of functioning, we conclude that any reconstruction of human society from the globalization point of view presumes tolerance as a fundamental factor. Functional tolerance assumes that everyone enjoys similar education in the spirit of tolerance at any age and any level. The future of humanity depends upon such a solution in the face of current woes. Overthrown to most intimate structures, the contemporary society sets itself again on the principle of globality. An older global tendency is asking its right to existence. Indisputably, the ampleness and the gravity of the problems confronting the humankind need a global approach, in order to find the saving solution. But "globality" or "mondialization" does not mean a uniform and indistinct totality swarming with the slogan of economic efficiently, no matter how important would it be. A such point of view, if it exists in somebody's mind, is a monstrosity and it cannot be accepted as such. Justified by the condition of the humankind in this millenium end, globalization presumes the difference and coexistent individualities on the ground of common and unanimous accepted values and ideals. In turn, the difference entails the democracy as a constitutive part of a mondializing process. Of course, it is not about a globalization of the democracy, but a need of democracy, which asserts itself in different forms and situation on all the meridians of the earth. It is quite clear that the diversity and democracy are ones of that is named now postmodernism. To live in a world, which is evolving or should be in accordance with these principles is near impossible out of the tolerance. Among others, the tolerance becomes necessarily the guiding star of the individual and human community by their will and action to reach the noble ideals of Good, Prosperity and Peace. But what is tolerance? Keeping its means from the Latin, the notion of tolerance means to support, to allow, enduring. These meanings refer to behavior expressing the acceptance of the individual, community or situation embodied difference. It could be talking about an ontological sense of the tolerance appearing in the endless variety of the manifesting existence forms.

evolution of the horse Essay -- essays papers

evolution of the horse ï » ¿For many people, the horse family remains the classic example of evolution. As more and more horse fossils have been found, some ideas about horse evolution have changed, but the horse family remains a good example of evolution. In fact, we now have enough fossils of enough species in enough genera to examine details of evolutionary change. Evolution does not occur in a straight line toward a goal, like a ladder; rather, evolution is like a branching bush, with no predetermined goal. Horse species were constantly branching off the evolutionary tree and evolving along various unrelated routes. There’s no discernable straight line of horse evolution. Many horse species were usually present at the same time, with various numbers of toes, and adapted to various diets. In other words, horse evolution had no inherent direction. We only have the impression of straight line evolution because only one genus happens to still be alive, which deceives some people into thinking that the one genus was somehow the target of all the evolution. Instead, that one genus is merely the last surviving branch of a once mighty and sprawling bush. Tracing a line of descent from Hyracotherium to Equus reveals several apparent trends: reduction of toe number, increase in size of cheek teeth, lengthening of the face, and increase in body size. But these trends are not seen in all of the horse lines. On the whole, horses got larger, bu...

Summary

She compares guns to cars saying that we have high her standards when it comes to licensing people to drive than we have for people to own a gun, the cough a car can be considered a lethal weapon. Throwing the quote â€Å"guns don't kill people† out t he window, she makes the argument that many less family feuds would lead to death if only t here hadn't been a gun in the house. She says that the people who study martial arts, who can lit really kill with bare ands, have been through years of training and discipline but that anyone ca n pick up a gun and kill with it.She believes that at the very least people who have guns should be trained, disciplined and have the same restrictions as those in England because, in her view, having a gun is literally the power to kill. She insists that â€Å"gun nuts† have a power hang up a ND that no sane society would allow the use of guns to continue. In her very last, amusing word ads she insists that we ban all guns and get dogs for protection. Summary A Summary on â€Å"Addiction in Free Markets† Bruce k. Alexander who is a professor at Simon Fraser University and Stefa Shaler who is a Freelance Social Worker, describe the beginning of the twenty first century as a time of strain on society and members needs to feel included and not dislocated. A member should feel they are included in a larger community with a sense of belonging, if this psychosocial integration is not met a member could be a candidate of gaining an addiction and this is what Alexander and Shaler are claiming in the writing â€Å"Addictions in Free Markets†If a market is solely controlled on supply and demand it is considered a free market. If a market is free a member is more than likely to feel an inferior sense of belonging due to supply and demand, and if they can keep up with the changes of society. People who cannot accept society’s change are often left dislocated from the other members. Although a market doesn’t have to be free to feel this way it is just more common in a free market.Dislocation from a free market can cause one to feel excluded and this leads to addiction. If a member doesn’t reach a reasonable degree of psychosocial integration they find a substitute lifestyle and consequently gain an addiction to fill the void that they are left with. Addiction can really be anything such as: drugs, alcohol, gambling, and even sex. Alexander and Shaler claim that it is natural for members to blame their problems on addictions and find that people will often do this.Alexander and Shaler believe that in a free market the spread of addiction is from political and spiritual problems. Members refuse to give up hope in believing that a free market will create universal well-being, but Alexander and Shaler question that if a free market doesn’t find a generous source of psychosocial integration they will become even more dislocated which will lead to an increase in addictions.If a society would j ust create a sense of belonging and meaning for the victims of dislocation they might be able to control addictions. Therefore Alexander and Shaler strongly believe that a free market society is the problem, and they need to create a healthier environment for people to live in so there are fewer addictions. They state that a â€Å"healthier society ultimately leads to a healthier economic system as well. † Summary A Summary on â€Å"Addiction in Free Markets† Bruce k. Alexander who is a professor at Simon Fraser University and Stefa Shaler who is a Freelance Social Worker, describe the beginning of the twenty first century as a time of strain on society and members needs to feel included and not dislocated. A member should feel they are included in a larger community with a sense of belonging, if this psychosocial integration is not met a member could be a candidate of gaining an addiction and this is what Alexander and Shaler are claiming in the writing â€Å"Addictions in Free Markets†If a market is solely controlled on supply and demand it is considered a free market. If a market is free a member is more than likely to feel an inferior sense of belonging due to supply and demand, and if they can keep up with the changes of society. People who cannot accept society’s change are often left dislocated from the other members. Although a market doesn’t have to be free to feel this way it is just more common in a free market.Dislocation from a free market can cause one to feel excluded and this leads to addiction. If a member doesn’t reach a reasonable degree of psychosocial integration they find a substitute lifestyle and consequently gain an addiction to fill the void that they are left with. Addiction can really be anything such as: drugs, alcohol, gambling, and even sex. Alexander and Shaler claim that it is natural for members to blame their problems on addictions and find that people will often do this.Alexander and Shaler believe that in a free market the spread of addiction is from political and spiritual problems. Members refuse to give up hope in believing that a free market will create universal well-being, but Alexander and Shaler question that if a free market doesn’t find a generous source of psychosocial integration they will become even more dislocated which will lead to an increase in addictions.If a society would j ust create a sense of belonging and meaning for the victims of dislocation they might be able to control addictions. Therefore Alexander and Shaler strongly believe that a free market society is the problem, and they need to create a healthier environment for people to live in so there are fewer addictions. They state that a â€Å"healthier society ultimately leads to a healthier economic system as well. †